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Geologic News, May 2023

New insights into the "Small Ice Age"

About 700 years ago, Europe and North America experienced a major climate change. The "Small Ice Age", which occurred at that time, caused prolonged, very cold winters and rainy, cool summers. The Baltic Sea and some rivers froze over during this time, but the glaciers of the Alps were able to advance into the valleys. Consequences were manifold, such as famines, crop failures and diseases. What was the trigger for this event? Currently, two causes are under discussion. One is a change in ocean currents and the other is volcanic eruptions. Sulphur aerosols emitted by the volcanoes could have darkened the stratosphere, resulting in less solar radiation. The analysis of ice cores supports this hypothesis. From 1100 to 1300 increased sulfur-rich eruptions could be detected. Whether these were actually responsible for the cooling, remains a mystery so far. Perhaps the moon could serve to clarify the whole thing. If a total lunar eclipse is present, the full moon lies in the shadow of the earth. This causes the scattered residual light to appear reddish in the atmosphere. However, when the stratosphere is characterized by many suspended particles, much of the scattered light is swallowed and the moonlight appears even darker. From medieval times, many historical writings by monks, astronomers, and historians from Asia are known, which described lunar eclipse events. 37 of the medieval descriptions also included information about the color and brightness of the moon. Six of them were described as strikingly dark. These events match the seven ice cores taken in five cases. Thus, volcanic eruptions can be taken as a sure indication of the "Small Ice Age." Source: doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-05751-z


Ozone killer shows new record high

The Montreal Protocol, adopted in 1987, bans both the production and release of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) worldwide. In addition, the release of carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) was banned in 2010. Despite the fact that ozone killers are banned, some have been detected in recent years, including trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11), as well as other new CFCs. In 2020, a new record high of emissions was determined, which were triggered by CFC compounds. Five ozone killers stood out in particular. Researchers explain that these actually have little to no known use at this time. Their atmospheric lifetimes range from 52 to 640 years. While two of the agents were once used as coolants and are now banned, the other three are produced as intermediates in other chemical processes, but are not allowed to be used as coolants. According to the latest analysis, emissions caused by these substances seem to have more than doubled from 2010 to 2020. For all five ozone killers, however, it is unknown whether they are released through leaks or if their emission is being deliberately accepted. They cause a global ozone loss of 0.002 percent. Furthermore, they contribute about 0.01 percent to the ozone hole at the South Pole. It is also shown that CFCs also have a greenhouse effect and thus contribute to the warming of the climate. For this reason, according to the scientists, there could be a tightening of the Montreal Protocol. Source: doi: 10.1038/s41561-023-01147-w


New record of ice loss in Antarctica and Greenland

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets form the largest ice reservoirs on Earth. Yet it is precisely these ice masses which are strongly affected by climate change and are the driving factors behind sea level rise. To some extent, the rate of ice loss in some regions has already accelerated to such an extent that part of the ice melt may be irreversible. New measurements show, how much ice mass has been lost since 1992. Data from 17 satellite missions and 50 measurement campaigns were analyzed for this purpose. The results are clear: From 1992 to 2020, the antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have lost a total of 7.62 trillion tons of ice. Annual loss is around 372 billion tons and rising. At the same time, the loss of ice is five times higher today in Greenland than it was in 1992, and has increased by 25 percent in Antarctica, researchers point out. In this context, seven out of ten record melting events have taken place since 2010. Above all, Greenland has been affected. Since 1992, an ice mass of 4.8 trillion tons has been lost there. On average, this corresponds to a rate of ablation of 169 billion tons per year. The Antarctic has lost around 2.6 trillion tons in the same period. Rapidly shrinking coastal glaciers in the west are the main contributors to thawing here, which has an impact on sea level. In both regions, the sea level has risen by around 21 millimeters since 1992. This means ice melt in those regions is now responsible for 25.6 percent of the rise in sea level. In the 1990s, by contrast, it was only 5.6 percent. This is a fivefold increase. If it continues at this rate, projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that meltwater from Antarctica and Greenland could raise sea levels between 1.48


Furthermore:

New Ordovician deposit with soft body preservation found at Castle Bank, Wales

New sabertooth cat found in China

 New species of Green River bat is oldest bat to date

 Australian titanosaur Diamantinasaurus found with nearly complete skull


Geologic News, May 2023

New insights into the "Small Ice Age"

About 700 years ago, Europe and North America experienced a major climate change. The "Small Ice Age", which occurred at that time, caused prolonged, very cold winters and rainy, cool summers. The Baltic Sea and some rivers froze over during this time, but the glaciers of the Alps were able to advance into the valleys. Consequences were manifold, such as famines, crop failures and diseases. What was the trigger for this event? Currently, two causes are under discussion. One is a change in ocean currents and the other is volcanic eruptions. Sulphur aerosols emitted by the volcanoes could have darkened the stratosphere, resulting in less solar radiation. The analysis of ice cores supports this hypothesis. From 1100 to 1300 increased sulfur-rich eruptions could be detected. Whether these were actually responsible for the cooling, remains a mystery so far. Perhaps the moon could serve to clarify the whole thing. If a total lunar eclipse is present, the full moon lies in the shadow of the earth. This causes the scattered residual light to appear reddish in the atmosphere. However, when the stratosphere is characterized by many suspended particles, much of the scattered light is swallowed and the moonlight appears even darker. From medieval times, many historical writings by monks, astronomers, and historians from Asia are known, which described lunar eclipse events. 37 of the medieval descriptions also included information about the color and brightness of the moon. Six of them were described as strikingly dark. These events match the seven ice cores taken in five cases. Thus, volcanic eruptions can be taken as a sure indication of the "Small Ice Age." Source: doi: 10.1038/s41586-023-05751-z


Ozone killer shows new record high

The Montreal Protocol, adopted in 1987, bans both the production and release of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) worldwide. In addition, the release of carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) was banned in 2010. Despite the fact that ozone killers are banned, some have been detected in recent years, including trichlorofluoromethane (CFC-11), as well as other new CFCs. In 2020, a new record high of emissions was determined, which were triggered by CFC compounds. Five ozone killers stood out in particular. Researchers explain that these actually have little to no known use at this time. Their atmospheric lifetimes range from 52 to 640 years. While two of the agents were once used as coolants and are now banned, the other three are produced as intermediates in other chemical processes, but are not allowed to be used as coolants. According to the latest analysis, emissions caused by these substances seem to have more than doubled from 2010 to 2020. For all five ozone killers, however, it is unknown whether they are released through leaks or if their emission is being deliberately accepted. They cause a global ozone loss of 0.002 percent. Furthermore, they contribute about 0.01 percent to the ozone hole at the South Pole. It is also shown that CFCs also have a greenhouse effect and thus contribute to the warming of the climate. For this reason, according to the scientists, there could be a tightening of the Montreal Protocol. Source: doi: 10.1038/s41561-023-01147-w


New record of ice loss in Antarctica and Greenland

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets form the largest ice reservoirs on Earth. Yet it is precisely these ice masses which are strongly affected by climate change and are the driving factors behind sea level rise. To some extent, the rate of ice loss in some regions has already accelerated to such an extent that part of the ice melt may be irreversible. New measurements show, how much ice mass has been lost since 1992. Data from 17 satellite missions and 50 measurement campaigns were analyzed for this purpose. The results are clear: From 1992 to 2020, the antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have lost a total of 7.62 trillion tons of ice. Annual loss is around 372 billion tons and rising. At the same time, the loss of ice is five times higher today in Greenland than it was in 1992, and has increased by 25 percent in Antarctica, researchers point out. In this context, seven out of ten record melting events have taken place since 2010. Above all, Greenland has been affected. Since 1992, an ice mass of 4.8 trillion tons has been lost there. On average, this corresponds to a rate of ablation of 169 billion tons per year. The Antarctic has lost around 2.6 trillion tons in the same period. Rapidly shrinking coastal glaciers in the west are the main contributors to thawing here, which has an impact on sea level. In both regions, the sea level has risen by around 21 millimeters since 1992. This means ice melt in those regions is now responsible for 25.6 percent of the rise in sea level. In the 1990s, by contrast, it was only 5.6 percent. This is a fivefold increase. If it continues at this rate, projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that meltwater from Antarctica and Greenland could raise sea levels between 1.48


Furthermore:

New Ordovician deposit with soft body preservation found at Castle Bank, Wales

New sabertooth cat found in China

 New species of Green River bat is oldest bat to date

 Australian titanosaur Diamantinasaurus found with nearly complete skull


Geologic News, April 2023


Origin of the salt polygons clarified
Whether from Death Valley in California, the Chott el Djerid in Tunisia or the Salar de Uyuni in Chile, the phenomenon of hexagonal, floe-like patterns in dried up salt lakes occurs worldwide. Why these hexagonal structures arise has so far been a great mystery. What is surprising is that these patterns, in contrast to dry cracks in dry lakes, always have the same shape and are always of relatively the same size, and this seems to be independent of regional geology, chemistry or the prevailing environmental conditions. The honeycombs are between one and two meters in diameter, regardless of how thick the underlying salt crust is. Since common mechanisms have not been able to explain this phenomenon so far, researchers from the University of Graz combined fluid dynamics and geomorphology to create a new approach. For this purpose, data from two typical salt lakes in California were collected. The result is that the patterns are formed by the circulation of salty water beneath the salt crust. When the surface water evaporates, it flows upwards into the center of the honeycomb and continues to evaporate. This increases the salt content and makes it denser and heavier. Following the gradient and gravity, the brine then drifts outwards. At the edges is then the heavier salt water, which then sinks back into the depths. As a result, convection currents of salty and less salty water form in the underground. The ridges on the edges are formed because the concentrated saltwater flows together from two directions and a part crystallizes before it goes down again. This also explains the uniform size, since the convection coils always have a certain size, regardless of the thickness of the underlying layers. This also explains the honeycomb shape better. Although the convection coils are supposed to form a circular shape, since there are so many in a small space, they turn into a shape that saves a lot more space, i.e. hexagonal honeycombs. Quelle: doi: 10.1103/PhysRevX.13.011025

Oxygen of the earth by minerals?
The so-called "Great Oxidation Event" around 2.4 billion years ago ensured that the atmosphere, which until then consisted mainly of nitrogen, water vapor and carbon dioxide, was enriched with oxygen. This ultimately enabled the evolution of higher animal life. But now the question, where did the sudden glut of oxygen come from? Until now, cyanobacteria were thought to be the trigger. However, these lived on earth more than three billion years ago. Previous theories suggest that the delay before the big event could have been caused by the delayed development of the multicellular blue-green algae or by geochemical factors. Researchers from the University of Leeds now examined the geochemical factors. According to her statement, the great oxygenation was only possible if the balance between the oxygen production of the bacteria and the breakdown of the dead individuals had shifted at the time. This is where the minerals come into play. The mineral particles have attached themselves to the dead algae, slowing down the decomposition process. Especially iron-containing oxides and hydroxides are helpful. This mineral glut was probably entered by the land masses that were rising at the time. As a result, many mineral sediments were washed into the sea. This shows that the development of the cyanobacteria was not solely responsible for the great oxygenation, but that geological processes also played a large part in it. Quelle: doi: 10.1038/s41561-023-01133-2


Active volcanism on Venus
While Venus' early days are believed to have been similar to Earth's, conditions today are hellish. A dense atmosphere obscures our view of the planet. Only radar images from probes and from ground-based radio telescopes provide a glimpse of the Venusian landscape. These images show that there are numerous volcanoes and lava flows on Venus. Scientists from the University of Alaska have now investigated how active the volcanism is today. To do this, they examined images from the Magellan probe from the 1990s. Particular attention was paid to the Atla region, home to the two largest volcanoes, Ozza Mons and Maat Mons. The shield volcanoes jut out six and eight kilometers respectively and are surrounded by numerous lava flows and smaller volcanic vents. Images from 1991 showed that the north face of Maat Mons had been filled with lava over the year. In addition, other pictures of the slope at a volcanic vent showed clear traces of lava flows. According to the researchers, these are all indications that active volcanism is prevalent on our neighboring planet. Upcoming missions could provide further certainty. NASA plans to. to send two space probes to Venus in 2031. One of these probes will also send a daughter probe into the atmosphere. ESA will also send a probe to Venus in 2032.Quelle: doi: 10.1126/science.abm7735

Geologic News, February 2023

Graywacke is rock of the year 2023
Although rocks make up such a large part of our everyday lives, most people pay little attention to them. In order to call attention back to this fact, a panel of experts led by the German Association of Geoscientists nominates a Rock of the Year every year. Last year it was gypsum and both years before it was andesite. In 2023, graywacke was selected to receive this honor. In the past, it was commonly referred to as "Wackerstein" in German. Its current name was coined in the 18th century by miners in the Harz Mountains. Even Johann Wolfgang von Goethe already mentioned the rock as "Graue Wacke". It is distinguished by a very firm, fine-grained matrix, embedded with angular and unsorted larger grains of rock. In terms of geology, it is a variety of sandstone. Nowadays, the rock is mainly used as a building material, for example as masonry or paving stone. The formation of these rocks usually goes back more than 300 million years. Either sediment was washed into a shallow shelf area by rivers or tectonic compression processes and accumulated there. Subsequently, an earthquake or other ground shaking caused the material to slide and race down a continental slope as a turbulent submarine mudslide. In the process, the coarser and finer materials split up due to their weight. In this way formations were formed on the submarine slopes, in which coarser and finer layers were found. Graywacke can be found especially on mountains near the sea. During the formation of mountains sediments were shoved into the shelf area, where they underwent the further process. In Central Europe this is the case in the low mountain range. During Variscan folding, about 400 to 280 million years ago, these rocks were formed. Nowadays, graywacke can be found in the Harz Mountains, the Sauerland, the Rhine and Thuringian Slate Mountains or the Franconian Forest, among others. Reference: GeoUnion Alfred-Wegener-Stiftung  

Team of researchers finds heavy meteorite in Antarctica
Antarctica makes a particularly good place to search for meteorites because of its bright, often snow-free ice surfaces. Two thirds of the meteorites found so far were obtained on this continent. Vinciane Debaille and his colleagues from the University of Brussels now ventured on an expedition to East Antarctica, specifically investigating some new territories. Satellite images indicated these locations to be particularly productive. The expedition took place at the end of December 2022. The scientists camped in tents in very low temperatures. Expeditions were carried out on foot or by snowmobile during the day. All potential finds were marked on maps first and then examined. Apart from several small meteorites a very large find emerged: a meteorite weighing 7.6 kilograms. Out of the approx. 45,000 pieces found in Antarctica so far, only 100 meteorites in this size range have been discovered. This huge find was delivered to the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural History in Brussels together with five other meteorites. In the near future the pieces will be analyzed there chemically, mineralogically and isotopically. Sediment samples containing potential micrometeorites were given to other research institutions for domestic laboratories to study. The research team hopes to gain new insights into the evolution and formation of meteorites and asteroids, as well as the early history of our solar system, through this discovery. Reference: Field Museum Chicago

Europe's largest deposit of rare earth metals discovered
Rare earth metals include neodymium, scandium, ytterbium and praseodymium. Essential for today's technology they are used, for example, as permanent magnets in wind turbines, electric motors and loudspeakers. Some are also found in the batteries of electric vehicles. Some 90% of Europe's rare earths are imported from China, as the world's largest deposits and the best facilities for separating and processing these elements are located there. A new find in northern Sweden now gives hope for a more independent future. LKAB, a Swedish mining company, has discovered a large deposit of rare earth metals in the town of Kiruna. Dubbed "Per Geijer", the deposit is located at a depth of around 300 meters. Presumably, this site could host more than one million tons of rare earths in the form of rare earth oxide. Together with phosphorus, the oxides are contained in the mineral apatite. Raw ore contains about 0.2 percent rare earths by weight. Consequently, from one ton of ore, two kilograms of the rare raw material can be found. Work has already begun on digging a tunnel from the nearby iron ore mine in Kiruna into the neighboring rare earth deposit. While this deposit is still small compared to those in China (the largest deposit in China is about 40 times larger), it could promote independence from China and its imports. But there is a catch: Mining cannot take place for at least ten years. Until then, the deposit must be further investigated and new technologies for extraction have to be created. Reference: LKAB

DATES 2022

_______________________________________
ST. MARIE AUX MINES
23.06.2022 - 26.06.2022
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MUNICH SHOW
**** dieses Jahr früher ****
30.09.2022 - 02.10.2022
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Day of open doors -
KRANTZ
21.10.2022 - 22.10.2022

Has the mystery of the first mass extinction been solved?
More than 550 million years ago, the ancestors of today's animal groups populated the oceans, which are known as Ediacara fauna and which owe their name to the epoch of that time, the Ediacarium. Among them were the first multicellular and social organisms. Life that emerged included, among others, the first real animals. However, the construction plans of these creatures completely differed from large groups of the animal kingdom today. Apart from this fact, it is puzzling, how this fauna came to an end. About 550 million years ago the majority of these organisms disappeared. In the following Cambrian they were replaced by ancestors of today's groups. Theories on this subject abound, including the possibility that more advanced animals replaced the ancient organisms or that the disappearance was caused by environmental factors. Researchers at Virginia Polytechnic Institute have taken up the question. They discovered that a great diversity of organisms existed until 560 to 550 million years ago, the so-called White Sea period. After that point, there was an abrupt change. During the period, about 80 percent of the 70 known Ediacara species had disappeared. Only 14 species remained, though more of these vanished towards the end of the epoch. Neither geographic factors nor anatomical and ecological characteristics could provide a reasonable link to the extinction. Strikingly, though, particularly animals with a large morphological surface persisted. Since oxygen was still absorbed by diffusion at this time, this could have increased the chances of survival. Hence, a lack of oxygen in the Ediacara Sea could be responsible for the mass extinction. What triggered this deficiency, however, is not known. Volcanic eruptions, tectonic plate movements, an asteroid impact, or a combination of triggers could be responsible. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2207475119

Active Martian volcanism possible?
Martian volcanism was once very active. Some of the largest volcanoes of our solar system were created during eruptions, most notably Olympus Mons. Initially, it was assumed that the time of these activities was history. A few years ago, however, indications of a recent, ongoing volcanism on Mars were discovered. Fresh dark deposits and recurring quakes in the trenches of the Cerebrus Fossae region point to active volcanism in the subsurface. To that end, researchers at ETH Zurich examined seismic recordings from NASA's Mars InSight spacecraft. Since the beginning of 2019, the spacecraft has repeatedly registered quakes in the region. This included recordings of weak, rapid tremors that form near the surface of the region and are generated by the trench structure present. Seismic activity due to discharged stresses, which are generated by the expansion of the trenches, are identified as the cause by researchers. In contrast, more rarely occurring slower and stronger Mars quakes have been located at a depth of about 20 to 40 kilometers, and thus in the lower region of the Martian crust. This suggests there is hot or even molten crustal rock in the depths. The latter strongly implies active volcanism and confirms the assumption of dating the aforementioned dark volcanic deposits to less than 50,000 years ago. Consequently, like Venus or Earth, it is possible that Mars could also be shaped by tectonic processes. doi: 10.1038/s41550-022-01803-y

Geothermal energy in Germany
The heating and cooling of buildings accounts for more than 30 percent of final energy consumption in Germany. Climate protection requirements and the current gas shortage make it clear that renewable and climate-neutral processes must grow. To this end, thermal aquifer storage is to be expanded further and further. In summer and when it is hot, pumping is to be carried out into aquifers close to the surface. When it then gets colder, this water is to be pumped back up from the insulating rocks and used via heat pumps for hot water and heating. On the other hand, cool groundwater provides cooling in summer. Where there are favorable conditions for these low-temperature aquifer storage facilities in Germany, scientists from the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology have researched various factors, such as the productivity of the aquifers and the flow rate of the groundwater. A map created for this purpose shows that around 54 percent of the German state area would be very well or well suited. Loose and porous rock in the subsoil is an advantage. Solid rocky ground is not suitable. Above all, regions in the North German Basin, the Upper Rhine Graben and the South German Molasse Basin are suitable. Unfortunately, around eleven percent of very good and well-suited areas are lost due to existing water protection areas, since the systems there are only permitted to a limited extent to protect drinking water production or in individual cases. The potential for such memory should even increase in all probability in the future. It could grow by 13 percent by the period 2071 to 2100. The Netherlands are pioneers in this area. Around 85 percent of the around 2,500 aquifer storage systems currently installed worldwide are located there. So far, Germany has only recorded two of these systems. doi: 10.1186/s40517-022-00234-2

Was the primordial earth hostile to life? 
(January 2022)
Some of the central roles in the Earth system are played by the magnetic field and the atmosphere. These essentially ensure that the radiation from space is largely shielded. For example, the ozone layer in our atmosphere protects against the sun's UV rays. Without the prior presence of molecular oxygen (O2), it would not be possible for there to be so much ozone (O3) on Earth. However, it was only around 2.4 billion years ago that cyanobacteria accumulated so much oxygen that it formed a permanent part of the earth's atmosphere, even though it was far less represented at that time than it is today. This event is now known as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE). A renewed increase followed around 600 million. From that time on, the oxygen content fluctuated between 10 and 150 percent of today's value. So far, the scientists assumed that the low oxygen content of around one percent, which occurred as a result of the GOE, should have been sufficient to be able to form an adequate ozone layer. Model calculations have now shown that the oxygen level in the atmosphere at that time was not sufficient for a separate ozone layer. It is believed that an adequate ozone layer to protect against UV rays was not formed until about 400 million years ago, when oxygen levels reached five to ten times what they are today. While this has not historically affected evolution at large, natural selection may have emerged in organisms with lower resistance to UV radiation. This could be exciting for mankind in the future when searching for exoplanets. The recently launched James-Webb-Telescope could provide a glimpse of the ozone layer and the resulting UV protection by analysing oxygen levels in alien atmospheres. Reference: doi: 10.1098/rsos.211165

Hotspot volcanism cooler than originally thought
(January 2022)
Isolated volcanoes in Hawaii, Iceland, Yellowstone, and many others are fed by large pools of molten rock that appear surprisingly cool. This was the result of Xiyuan Bao's working group at the University of California in Los Angeles, which used seismic measurements to examine the temperature of the subsoil. The finding is that around 40 percent of the hotspots appear to be too cool to be buoyantly rising from the deep mantle. A hotspot is typically a mushroom-shaped magma bubble formed by material rising from deep beneath the Earth's crust. To study this phenomenon, the working group measured the speed of seismic waves beneath such a hotspot material in the mantle. With the calculated results, the temperature of the hotspot material could be deduced. In theory, the material pushing up from below must be at least 100 to 150 degrees Celsius hotter than a comparable melt in the mid-ocean ridge in order to ensure rapid ascent from the depths. The researchers note that only around 45 percent of the hotspots meet this condition. Due to the assumed temperature differences, the real number could be even lower. Another source of hotspot volcanism is now being debated. The helium-3 content serves as an indicator. Hotter hotspots have more helium-3. The material for this seems to come from deeper regions and has hardly changed since the formation of the earth. The helium composition of cooler hotspots, on the other hand, has more in common with that of mid-ocean ridges. The classic theory behind the hotspots assumes an origin at the core-mantle boundary. According to the latest findings, this would then only fit the hotter structures. On the positive side, the location of the hottest hotspots over anomalies at the core-mantle interface, which most likely feed them, speaks for itself. Cooler hotspots could be created closer to the surface by local convection. However, there are other explanations for cooler hotspots. They could also have come from the depths but got stuck and cooled on the way up. Above all, however, the scientists are still puzzling over how it can be that the temperatures are so unevenly distributed over the earth. Most of the hot hotspots are in the Pacific Rim. Cool ones, on the other hand, are mostly found around Africa. Link: https://www.spektrum.de/news/vulkanische-hotspots-sind-kuehler-als-gedacht/1968352

Amazing Ichthyosaurus find in Great Britain
(January 2022)
In addition to the well-known dinosaurs on land, primordial beings also appeared in the water in the distant past. These so-called ichthyosaurs (fish dinosaurs), while not directly belonging to the same group as the dinosaurs, are no less interesting to science. Palaeontologists recently made a sensational discovery. In the Rutland Water Nature Reserve in the British East Midlands, palaeontologists found a predator that was believed to be around 10 meters long when it was alive around 180 million years ago. The recovered fossil is currently being prepared and examined in Shropshire. It should then return to Rutland for the exhibition. It was found by Joe Davis. He leads the conservation team at Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust. Davis became aware of the fossil following a routine draining of a lagoon island for landscaping in February 2021. The find represents the largest and most complete fossil of its kind, Temnodontosaurus trigonodon, and the first find of this species in the UK. It also represents the largest specimen of all in the last 200 years in which ichthyosaur fossils have been uncovered within the country. In addition to this species, there are others within the ichthyosaurs, some of which could even become considerably larger and heavier. What is particularly interesting for the scientists is the fact that the animals apparently transformed into such giants within a period of just a few million years at the beginning of the Triassic. This was probably due to an oversupply of food. However, it remains unclear why they died out long before the dinosaurs. Link: https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000132436326/britischer-rekordfund-riesiger-fischsaurier-verbluefft-wissenschafter
The origin of cone sands finally clarified
Cone sands occur partly in sedimentary formations and consist of compressed sandstone. They have a thickened head on one side with a tapering tail on the opposite side and can grow from a few dozen centimetres to a meter in length. The first finds of these strangely shaped rocks were found around 200 years ago, south of the Swabian Alb. Such finds from California are also known from the 30s of the last century. The finds, which were in abundance, were so sought-after that practically everything was searched at Mt. Signal in California in the 1950s. However, what played a role in the formation of these sedimentary structures has not yet been known. The theories ranged from petrified seaweed to sand-filled crab ducts. Now researchers have taken on the matter again and geologically and petrographically examined 311 dispensing sands from the Swabian Alb. It is interesting that the cones seem to follow one direction and move in a streamlined manner around the edge of the Swabian Alb. The cone sands of the Swabian Alb originated around 15 million years ago, at the same time as the Nördlinger-Ries event. In contrast, the cone sands from California come from near the San Andreas Fault. What both now have in common is their connection to strong seismic activity. The researchers conclude that the cones are a special type of sand-based seismite. Vibrations and shock waves are likely to have contributed to the formation of these sedimentary formations. According to the experts, the condition for the formation should be a loose layer of sand on partially moist sediment, which came into contact with a magnitude of over 7. They therefore constitute a new potential indicator of strong earthquakes and seismic events in the past. This knowledge can also be used in the future to better limit and assess risk areas for earthquakes. Reference: doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-27061-6

Standardized nomenclature for minerals
As early as 1814, the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius brought order to the world of the elements. Based on his work, each element was given an abbreviation made up of one or two letters. This nomenclature is still valid today and forms the basis for setting up chemical formulas. In mineralogy, however, there is not such a sorted system. Here the names of the minerals only partially or not at all correspond to the chemical compound names. In 1983 the mineralogist Ralph Kretz drew up a list to put an end to this problem. The 192 most common minerals were given an abbreviation consisting of two to three letters. Over time, these so-called "Kretz symbols" were expanded to include 374 minerals. Now, however, the problem follows. At this point in time, 5774 minerals are known worldwide. Since this is more of a recommendation than a specification, the symbols have grown wildly in the past. Some minerals had more than half a dozen different abbreviations. Laurence Warr from the University of Greifswald has now put an end to it all. A list of all minerals and their corresponding abbreviations was submitted and approved by the International Mineralogical Association-Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (IMA-CNMNC). All newly discovered minerals must also be subjected to this process and accepted in the future. The abbreviations now follow certain rules. Among other things, they should no longer be the same as an element abbreviation. Reference: doi: 10.1180/mgm.2021.43

Small theropod with a beak spotted in Brazil
Palaeontologists from Brazil made a sensational find. During the excavation period from 2011 to 2014, the fossil was discovered during an excavation in the Brazilian state of Paraná. The fossilized remains are a rather unusual dinosaur. This species is counted among the theropods. Theropods are a group within the dinosaurs that moved on two legs and consisted to a large extent of carnivorous representatives. Among them were some of the largest land-dwelling predators. Probably the most famous representative, Tyrannosaurus Rex, should be familiar to most. The animal, which was only found in the last decade, was named Berthasaurus leopoldinae by scientists. The name is based on the Brazilian scientist Bertha Lutz, who died in 1976, and the Brazilian empress and patron Maria Leopoldina, who lived in the 19th century. Berthasaurus leopoldinae was only about three feet long. But what makes it special is its mouth. In contrast to most of the other theropods, which had a mouth fitted with sharp teeth, the Berthasaurus apparently had a beak. From its unusual head shape, the scientists can deduce that the animal must have been an omnivore. The likelihood that it also ate meat cannot be ruled out by the scientists. After all, there are also birds nowadays which feed on meat despite their beak. Whether the theropod, which lived 70 to 80 million years ago, was a predecessor of modern birds remains questionable. These split off from the flightless theropods around 150 million years ago. The animal represents one of the most complete dinosaur finds from the Cretaceous period in the paleontological history of Brazil. Reference: Link: https://www.derstandard.at/story/2000131274387/ungewoehnlicher-mini-dinosaurier-mit-schnabel-entdeckt
Moor fires release fewer climate-damaging gases than expected
In the northern latitudes there have been more and more major fires in bogs in recent years due to advancing climate change. As a rule, this is accompanied by a large release of carbon dioxide into the air. However, parts of this biomass do not dissolve in air, but remain charred in the absence of air. Researchers at the University of Tübingen have made new discoveries in collaboration with colleagues from Cornell University in the USA. They found that these charred peatlands release 13 to 24 percent less of the methane into the atmosphere over the long term. Moors are considered to be good CO2 stores, but they have exactly the opposite effect when they are burned. To study this better, the researchers studied samples of peatland soils and charred biomass. In doing so, two important insights were gained. On the one hand, the burned biomass binds the carbon better, which makes it less dangerous. In addition, the charred biomass absorbs more electrons, which increases the bacterial population, stimulates oxidation processes and thus pushes back the methane producers. However, this news is only partially good. Despite all of this, moor fires continue to release many greenhouse gases such as CO2. However, the knowledge gained here should be considered for future climate models. Link: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24350-y
Pyrite "fool's gold" contains real gold
The mineral pyrite, which should be known to some collectors, experts but also to non-specialists as fool's gold, was sold as real gold by traders a few centuries ago. At the time, hardly anyone knew that this was not gold, but nowadays the minerals can be differentiated based on simple factors such as the colour of the line or the vastly different weight. The reason for the brisk demand was that gold was still more a prestige object than it is today, which was mainly reserved for the rich and aristocratic in the form of jewellery. The only real gold that could be detected in pyrite was, besides the element copper, only present in the form of nanoparticles. However, researchers at the Australian University of Perth found astonishing. In the examined pyrite there were crystal defects in which real gold occurs. Although the amount of gold available is still low, a limit has been exceeded here, which has drawn the industry's attention. The gold present here is little in relation to the pyrite, but pyrite is so abundant that it is suitable as a future source of gold or possibly copper. With a selective leaching, i.e. a separation by liquid, a very simple differentiation of the two materials is possible. The fool's gold still lives up to its name. Reference: Doi 10.1130/G49028.1
Use of stone tools: Chimpanzees live before the Stone Age
A study by the zoo in the Norwegian city of Kristansand and the Chimfunshi Wildlife Orphanage, a protection station in Zambia, showed a few years ago that chimpanzees are unable to spontaneously create sharp-edged stone tools or even use them once they have been presented to them. Under the direction of Dr. Claudio Teenie, head of the STONECULT project at the University of Tübingen, the experiment was performed by Dr. Elisa Bandini and Dr. Alba Motes-Rodrigo. The use of self-made sharp tools has been known to humans for around 2.6 million years. So far, however, success has only been achieved if the great apes were cultivated, i.e. raised and trained by humans, and if they were introduced to the manufacture and use of such tools. In the new study conducted, untrained chimpanzees were given two different sealed containers. Both had food as a reward, which could be seen through a Plexiglas pane. A stone core and hammer stones were made available to the animals as material. Despite the fact that the animals realized that it was food in the containers, no attempt was made on their part to use tools in any meaningful way. The researchers assume that the desired result would only have occurred if the animals could have copied it. Since the apes and humans split up around 7 million years ago, it can be concluded that the chimpanzees were stuck before the Stone Age and that the skills necessary to use such tools only emerged in the course of the human evolution. Link: https://open-research-europe.ec.europa.eu/articles/1-20/v2
Unknown armored giant of the Cambrian
Palaeontologists have explored a new species in Burgess Shale, a world-famous fossil deposit found in the Rocky Mountains of Canada. The twelve existing fossils are the remains of Titanokorys gainesi. This sea creature measures around half a meter in length. It comes from the middle Cambrian period (approx. 500 million years). The prehistoric predator is an arthropod, which can be assigned to the order of radionts that are already extinct. In addition to its considerable size of around 50 centimetres, its pronounced long head amor is also a focus for scientists. This covered the animal by approx. 75%. Since it is assigned to the radionts, it probably also had a round mouth, which was equipped with teeth all around. Two tentacles probably helped the animals to catch their prey and finally to introduce it into exactly this mouth. Similar to today's arthropods, Titanokorys gainesi already had compound eyes. Based on its occurrence and body features, it can be assumed that its preferred habitat was the seabed. Relatively to the present day its size seems to be rather moderate, but the animal is already a large animal by Cambrian standards. Only a few animals, such as the genus Anomalocaris, which belong to the same order, were able to grow a little larger with a body length of 60 to 100 centimetres. Link: https://www.spektrum.de/news/burgess-schiefer-gepanzerter-gigant-aus-dem-kambrium/1920835
The super volcanoes of Mars
For some time now, geologists have suspected a new type of volcanism on Mars. While shield volcanoes such as Olympus Mons have been explored for a long time, another type of volcanism is said to have been discovered on Mars. These are super volcanoes hidden in the underground. The first indications of this were in the northern region of Arabia Terra. The large craters to be found there form seven largely round depressions, which can be up to 100 kilometers in diameter. While at the beginning of the research it was still thought that these could be impact craters, more and more details over the course of time pointed to volcanism as the origin. Presumably these formations are the collapsed calderas of super volcanoes. The scientists use the ash layers in the region as a guide for their assumption. These layers decrease in thickness from one kilometer at a distance of 250 kilometers from the volcano to at least 100 m at a distance of around 3,400 kilometers. From this data, an ejection of 7.5 to 15 million cubic kilometers of ash and various other volcanic material can be calculated. The eruptions probably took place in the early stages of Mars. The amount of magma extracted is likely to correspond to that of Olympus Mons. To make a comparison to Earth, one could look at the Siberian Trapps, which were created as a result of the flood basalt eruptions around 250 million years ago. From this event, 1.7 million cubic kilometers of volcanic material is still preserved today. The released gases, which were ejected by the many times these volcanoes erupted, could even have had a decisive effect on the climate of Mars. Reference: doi: 10.1029/2021GL094109